What is a myth Essay Example for Free

What is a myth Essay It is a traditional story based on ancient beliefs of different communities and having supernatural explanations of facts or natural phenomena. The mythical story is related to religious beliefs, for that reason, has a ritual character, ie presents invariable elements and is distinguished by its durability. The purpose of myth is not to entertain, as with the story, but to explain the meaning of life. So there are certain subjects such as the origin of man and the universe, which are treated in the myths of all cultures. The myth responds to a particular way of seeing the world and to explain the phenomena that exist in it. Unlike science, which gives rational and logical explanations to these phenomena, the myth gives explanations mà ³gicas and somewhat fantastic. For this reason, events occur absurd myths, magic solutions exist and appear fabulous characters. The fact that different communities have similar concerns led to the creation of myths about the same phenomena in different cultures. In the myth of Phaeton these aspects are reflected in the following manner: Phenomenon: The origin of deserts and of the black race. Made fantastic: Phaeton driving the chariot of the sun to prove its divine origin. Universality: The phenomenon, how it is explained and the characters are repeated with some different characteristics in myths of other communities. Classification of myths beind coded contents: Cosmogenic: explain the creation of the world. Theogonic: explain the origin of the gods.   Antropogà ³nicos: explain the appearance of man Etiological: explain political, religious and social. Morales: Explain ethical principles opposites like good and evil, angels and demons. Features According to Mircea Eliade, myth is a sacred story that chronicles an event that happened during primeval time, in which the world had not yet stood. The events of the periodically recurring nature are explained as a result of the events narrated in the myth (for example, in Greek mythology the cycle of seasons is explained from the abduction of Persephone). However, not all myths refer to a time first also can address occurring after the origin, but distinguished by their importance and the changes they brought. In the view of Claude Levi-Strauss, structuralist anthropologist, every myth has three characteristics: †¢ This is an existential question concerning the creation of the earth, death, birth and the like. †¢ consists of irreconcilable opposites: creation vs destruction, life against death, gods against men or good vs. evil. †¢ provides the reconciliation of these poles in order to avert our anguish. For its part, the anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski argued that no important aspect of life that is alien to the myth. Therefore, there are religious myths (such as the birth of the gods), politicians (such as the founding of Rome) or on particular issues (why corn became the main food of a people, as with the pre-Hispanic peoples of Mexico ). For Malinowski fundamental myths are narratives, while responding to the basic questions of human existence: reason to exist, because of what surrounds it, between otras.Malinowski also clarified that the myth of the order of beliefs and if it is an explanation, not a rational explanation, but cultural. Function of Myth Functions are multiple myths. However, in general, can accept three essential functions: explanatory and pragmatic meaning. The explanatory function refers to the myths explain, justify or develop the origin, purpose and because of some aspect of social or individual, for example, the Greek myth that tells how the world originated from Chaos or Genesis that says the birth of the woman from the rib of a man. The pragmatic function of myth implies that myths are the basis of certain social structures and actions as well, a myth can make a genealogical line and determine who can govern or not. With this feature, specify and justify myths why a situation is in a certain way and not another. The role of meaning refers to that myths are not just stories that provide explanations or political justifications also provide a comfort, calm life goal or individuals, so it is with myths that speak of death, suffering or victory therefore, the myths are stories away from the person, but function a s a handle existential, a motive, according to the American psychoanalyst, Rollo May. The three functions are usually combined steadily. Types of Myths We distinguish several kinds of myths: †¢ cosmogonic myths: attempt to explain the creation of the world. Are the most universally widespread and there is a greater amount. Often, lies the origin of the earth in a primordial ocean. Sometimes, a race of giants, like the Titans, plays a crucial role in this creation, in this case, such giants, which are usually demigods, are the first people on earth. †¢ Myths theogonic: tell the origin of the gods. For example, Athena comes armed from the head of Zeus. †¢ anthropogenic Myths: narrating the appearance of human beings, who can be created from any material, alive (a plant, an animal) or inert (dust, mud, clay, etc..). The gods taught to live on earth. Usually linked to the cosmogonic myths. †¢ Myths etiological explain the origin of beings, things, techniques and institutions. †¢ moral Myths: explain the existence of good and evil. †¢ Foundational Myths: tell how the cities were founded by the will of the gods. An example is the founding of Rome by two twins, Romulus and Remus, who were suckled by a she-wolf. †¢ Myths eschatological: announce the future, the end of the world. They still have wide audience. These myths include two major classes, depending on the element that causes the destruction of the world: water or fire. They are often linked to astrology. The imminent end is announced by a higher frequency of eclipses, earthquakes, and all sorts of natural disasters that terrorize humans. The classic example is the Apocalypse, considered as such by Bertrand Russell.1 Reading literal, allegorical and symbolic While myths appear to have been originally proposed as literally true stories, the dialectic between the worlds mythical explanation and philosophical and scientific development has favored non-literal readings of myth, according to which they should not be subject to belief, but interpretation. Thus the allegorical reading of myths, born in Greece in the Hellenistic period, proposes to interpret the gods as personifications of natural elements. This commitment finds its continuation in later theories, such as widespread in the nineteenth century by Max Mà ¼ller, whereby myths stories stem from misunderstood about the sun, which has been personified, becoming an anthropomorphic (the hero or sun god). Reading symbolic believes the myth contains accurate content, but not on what is apparently, but on the mental contents of its creators and users. Thus, the myth about a god instituted the week to create the world in seven days contains truthful about how society divided the time it was created and which divisions between the inanimate and the animate, the different types of animals and man etc.. Myths also contain useful guidelines for behavior: role models or avoid all known stories with which to relate individual experiences. Modern studies on the myth fall into three basic positions: †¢ the functionalist, developed by the anthropologist Malinowski examines what myths are used in everyday life (behavior reinforcement, argument from authority, etc.). †¢ structuralist, initiated by Levi-Strauss, examines the construction of myths locating contrary or complementary elements that appear in it and how they are related; †¢ the symbolism, which has classical references in Jung, Bachelard and Gilbert Durand, believes that the key element of the myth is a symbol, a tangible item but full of resonance or significance that refers to archetypal contents of the human psyche. (An example is the Child archetype Elder, contradictory figure who appears as a character in appearance or behavior longtime child-like Merlin or a baby or child who is capable of speaking and endowed with vast knowledge, typical of an old-the baby Jesus lecturing to doctors.) Difference between myth and other stories Often myth is often confused with other types of stories as tales, fables and legends. However, are not equal. There are several differences between myth and folk tale: while the stories are presented as fictions, myths are presented as true stories. Function also varies: the myth is essentially etiological (clear how they came to a certain situation, why the sea is salty or man is mortal, for example), while the values ​​transmitted folktale (better skill than strength, good always has its reward, the impostor is always open, etc..). In addition, the plot of the stories is usually simple, while myths are part of a complex, in which each story is connected with the other by recurrent characters, places, etc.. (So, for example, the story of Jason is related to myths about Heracles, as this is one of the Argonauts). The fables myths differ from the characters (those fables are animals human conduct the myths, gods, heroes and monsters) and by function (fables contain a moral message, which usually appears at the end collected of them as moral, while myths are etiological). As for the legends, are presented, as well as myths, like true stories and often have a causal role (used, for example, to explain how a lineage came to power, which underpins its political legitimacy), but Unlike myths, happening in real time, historic places recognized by the listener or reader, and often with real actors (cf. the legends of Charlemagne or El Cid). The same pattern may appear in a myth, a story or legend, depending on how you present the story (true or fictional) and what your role (etiological, educational, entertainment ). Thus, noted how the plot of the Oedipus myth reappears in the medieval legend of Judas Iscariot makes a murderer of his father who marries without knowing his mother.

A Review of Peter Brown’s Augustine of Hippo Essay -- Augustine Hippo

A Review of Peter Brown’s Augustine of Hippo   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Peter Brown’s Augustine of Hippo is a dense, scholarly work outlining the entire life of the Catholic bishop.   The University of California Press in Berkeley, California published the work in 1967.   My version was the 1973 second paperback printing, found in the University library.   Its smallish, scholarly, serifed, typewritten font allows for a instant respect for the subject matter:   the words are at first imposing, but then revealing as their serious tone complements the complexity of the text.   The pages are studded with footnotes, filling out this work with evidence of Brown’s exhaustive research.   There is a three-page preface before the work, and, after the work, a seventeen-page bibliography, and ten-page index.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Brown’s book is organized, like any scholarly biography, chronologically according to Augustine’s life.   It is separated into five parts, each corresponding to significant portions of Augustine’s life:   his pagan life, his conversion, his actions against the Donatists, his actions against Pelagians, and his final legacy and death.   Each part opens with a chronological table of events both directly involving Augustine and the world he lived in.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first part begins with â€Å"Africa,† a chapter detailing the section of northern Africa:   its Greco-Roman literary and political history, painting a picture of the world Augustine came from.   The next chapter, titled â€Å"Monica,† describes Augustine’s parents, particularly his mother, and their religious beliefs and socioeconomic status.   â€Å"Education,† the third chapter, is about the future bishop’s early education, focusing on his introduction to his favorite school subject, Latin literature.   T... ...uum:   Writing the ‘City of God,’† rather than just â€Å"City of God.†Ã‚   (This chapter is actually misprinted in the table of contents as â€Å"Opus Magnum† rather than â€Å"Magnum Opus,† a small error, but one easy enough to catch in proofreading, for this second paperback edition.   Also, Brown has a penchant for Latin or French phrases, inserted randomly to convey special meaning; this could be forgivable if they were translated or explained, even in the spacious footnotes:   they are not, leaving the layman reader frequently confused and agitated.   But, this book is not intended for the layman; it is a scholarly work, and most readers would be in his field of antiquity, and most probably know Latin, and be more acquainted with familiar French phrases.   Augustine of Hippo is not perfect, but it is an extremely good biography, being both exceedingly thorough and fully captivating.

Aphrodite/Role of Women in Illiad Essay

Throughout the many annals of Greek mythology, there have been many fascinating characters, ranging from the beginning of time with Gaia and Uranus, to their children, Cronus and his wife Rhea, through the Titanomachy, the war of the Titans versus the Gods, and finally to their children, the Olympians themselves, and the dawn of the Silver Age. Of the twelve Olympic Deities, you have five Goddesses: Hera, the queen of Olympus, Demeter, Goddess of the harvest, Aphrodite, Goddess of Love, Artemis, Goddess of the Hunt, and Athena, Goddess of Wisdom. While each of them have their own intriguing backstory, histories, and myths associated with them, there are none more fascinating than Aphrodite, the goddess of love, beauty, and sexual rapture herself. Her intrigue begins at her inception into the world of Greek Mythology. There are multiple accounts of how Aphrodite came into existence but the most widely recognized one came from Hesiod’s poem Theogony, on the origins and genealogies of the Greek Gods and Goddesses, in which much of Greek mythology is derived from. As the myth goes, when Cronus castrated his father Uranus, Uranus tossed his amputated member into the Ocean, and from the resulting foam, out came Aphrodite, fully grown in all her beauty and splendor. It is said that it is because of this lewd beginning that Aphrodite gained her erotic nature. Almost immediately after joining Olympus, Zeus’ fear quickly grew about a growing conflict between the Gods about who would be the one to take Aphrodite’s hand in marriage. Acting quickly Zeus married her off to his son Hephaestus, the God of smiths, crafters, and weavers, due to his anger towards Hera for throwing him off Olympus when he was born because of his innate unattractiveness. Aphrodite did not however take her wedding vows very seriously and took part in quite a number of affairs. Her partners ranged from Gods to mortals to include Dionysus, Hermes, Poseidon, Nerites, Anchises, Butes, Phaon and Phaethon, but her two main affairs were with, firstly Ares, the God of War, with whom she had numerous children with, mainly Eros (god of love), Phobos and Deimos (the embodiment of fear and error), Anteros (god of love returned), as well as Himerus (personification of lust), and Harmonia (goddess of Harmony). Her second main affair was with a mortal name Adonis. She had to compete with Persephone, Goddess of Spring for him, and the conflict got so heated, that Zeus believed he had to step in to resolve the issue. Jealous of Aphrodite’s love for him, it is said that Ares himself transformed into a bull and killed Adonis himself. What was blatantly obvious from the moment she walked out of the Ocean was that Aphrodite’s erotic nature and her command over love gave her immense power and control. Love, being one of the most basest of instincts, gave her a level of influence of the males of the world that set her apart from the rest of the Olympians. It was said that whenever Aphrodite spoke, even Zeus listened1. While Aphrodite definitely has a loving side to her, it is by no means her sole personality trait. Many a myth have portrayed Aphrodite, not only as jealous and vain, but also deceitful, and at times downright ruthless. When it suited her, she was known to be unapologetically treacherous and malicious, and her sway over men was often potentially deadly. The bewitching power she possessed over men very often led to their own destruction. To illustrate how deadly Aphrodite can be, we need not look no further than the Judgment of Paris. The Judgment of Paris was when Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite, came down to Earth, and with a certain influence from Eris, the God of discord, Paris was asked to choose the most beautiful between the three of them. Aphrodite, with her power over men, was of course chosen. Paris was promised the most beautiful woman in the world, and as a result, an uncountable number of men bled for his choice in the Trojan War. To exemplify her vain, jealous nature, we look to the myth of Eros and Psyche. Jealous of Psyche’s beauty, she sent a plague to her homeland and said the only way to rid the land of plague is to sacrifice Psyche. As soon as Eros laid eyes on her, he fell in love and saved her from the sacrifice and married her. Even though they were married, Eros would never let Psyche lay her eyes on him. One night to satisfy her (and her two sisters) curiosity, she snuck into his chambers and accidentally woke him. Irate and disobeyed, Eros fled. Driven by love, Psyche implored Aphrodite to give her another chance, but with ulterior motives in mind, Aphrodite agreed. Psyche was forced to complete a series of nearly impossible tasks, culminating in Psyche having to go to the Underworld and retrieve a box of Persephone’s beauty cream. Upon opening the box, Psyche fell into a coma, at which point at Zeus’ command, Eros brought Psyche up to Olympus and made her immortal. In regards to certain Olympians, the power and influence they possess and exert is apparent as the light of day. Two very evident examples are firstly Zeus, the king of the Gods, and Poseidon, the lord of the seas. With goddesses like Aphrodite, her power isn’t always as clear. Instead of obvious supremacy over the physical realm, Aphrodite has command over man’s more basic instincts. This in many ways, can be much more dangerous, and is abundantly clear when she seems to give immortal Gods a very bone-chilling mortal side. Topic #13) Discuss the role of women in the Iliad by Homer. Masculinity in ancient Greece was one of the most highly regarded character traits a human being could possess. Men in Greece were expected to be tough, cold, and exude power with not an over abundance of rules and a lot of wants and desires. Women on the other hand were, for the most part, to be treated and kept like slaves. Ladies were viewed as property by their male opposite numbers, and their function outside of the home were severely limited and confined to religious activities. Sardonically, this same people that revered Goddesses. Goddesses were to take part in the glory of war, and were able to abide by their own rules. That is the case for Goddesses in the Odyssey by Homer. While most to all women are treated as second hand citizens, there are many different types of women portrayed in the Iliad. There are resolutely willed women, clever women, damsels in distress, evil and vengeful women, and women that could potentially bring about the downfall of the protagonist male hero. Among those there are also women who are shown as the spoils of war. The true irony is that while the story is predominantly about conflicts in the male dominated world, the cause and inspiration of these conflicts is usually the opposite sex itself, women. The women in the Iliad can, for the most part be separated into several groups. In the first group, you have the women who are specifically portrayed as less than human and are more property than anything else. The most prominent example for this is the case of Briseis and Chryseis. While it may seem both characters are merely â€Å"war prizes† to be won by the opposing side, their impact is a little less obvious and a little more mercurial. Neither of these two women have any sort of power (physical, political, magical, etc. ), however their breathtaking beauty simply influences men to keep on going to war for them. When Apollo blighted the invading forces with a plague, cursed to ravage the Greeks until Chryseis was give back to her Trojan father, Agamemnon proclaimed to Achilles that if he gives Chryseis back to the Trojans, he shall take Bryseis, Achilles’ war prize as his own. So angry Achilles was with his king, that he withdrew from battle and allowed the Greek forces at the mercy of the Trojans. This shows how great the power a woman’s beauty can behold, and how simple it is for them to take advantage of man’s baser instincts. Helen of Troy is another example of the sway that beauty has over the male gender. Because of her abduction and her complicit role with Paris and Troy against Menelaus and the Spartans, the Trojan war was sparked and both nations paid dearly as a result. Eventually though, it was made clear that she deeply regretted her decision to leave for Troy and despised herself and Paris for allowing so many to die so that they could simply be together. Of all the female characters in the Iliad, none play more idealistic of a role than Andromache, Hector’s wife. While she doesn’t have multiple men killing each other over her, she no less plays an important role. Andromache can be described as the anti Helen. Hector is the one man in all of the Iliad who loves and adores his wife. She was his main motivation for defeating the Greeks, for he knew what would happen to her and his son should the Greeks claim victory over them. She is the perfect example of your ideal housewife. Her two goals are to raise their child and to keep her husband happy. The next group of women are those who would be described as having a much darker side. The ones who, for example, use their beauty and sexuality as a weapon. The most blatant character who’s guilty of such action is Aphrodite, the goddess of sexual manipulation herself. Starting with the judgment of Paris, where she seduced Paris into choosing her as the most beautiful Goddess over Athena and Hera with the promise of giving him the most beautiful woman in the world. As a result, the Trojan War was started. The next woman that falls under this category is Calypso, the daughter of Titan Atlas. When Odysseus was washed up on her shore, she immediately fell in love with him. Calypso enchants Odysseus to and forces him to stay with her for the next seven years, in which, by certain accounts, Calypso bore him three children, Latinus, Nausithous, and Nausinous. He was not able to leave until Hermes came to Calypso with a directive from Zeus to let him go free. These characters reinforce the stereotype that women have no physical power, but can very easily seduce men and manipulate them with their beauty and sexual nature. The final female character of significance in the Iliad is Athena. As the patron goddess to Odysseus, it is her duty to protect him and his family and steer him in the proper direction when he goes off course in life. Without her guidance, Odysseus’ son Telemachus would have most likely given up on his father and allowed Penelope, Odysseus’ wife to marry one of her suitors. Under the guise of Mentes, the advise that Telemachus receives from her plays an incredibly significant role in his development as a man. On top of that, on multiple occasions, Athena saves Odysseus’ life from Poseidon, whom he angered with his arrogance after the victory at Troy. This benevolent role that she plays is reserved for specifically female goddesses. While mortal women are seen as weak, even the more evil ones, the female Goddesses boast being able to wield as much power as the males Gods. While most mortal women in the Iliad are stereotyped to a fault, there are still a small number, such as Andromache and Penelope, that give ancient Greek women a sense of dignity. The goddesses’ story is something else entirely. While mortal women are stuck as mere housewives, the goddesses are viewed as equals from the male counterparts. It can be argued that the power that goddesses like Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite wield matches that of Poseidon and Hades. The respect that goddesses command can be seen when Athena had the city of Athens named after her over Poseidon. However. overcoming that lay before him and with much help needed from certain people around him, Odysseus finally made it home.

Definition and Examples of World English

The term World English (or World Englishes) refers to the  English language as it is variously used throughout the world. Its also known as international English and global English. The English language is now spoken in more than 100 countries. Varieties of World English include American English, Australian English, Babu English, Banglish, British English, Canadian English, Caribbean English, Chicano English, Chinese English, Denglish (Denglisch), Euro-English, Hinglish, Indian English, Irish English, Japanese English, New Zealand English, Nigerian English, Philippine English, Scottish English, Singapore English, South African English, Spanglish, Taglish, Welsh English, West African Pidgin English, and Zimbabwean English. In an article titled Squaring Circles, in the International Journal of Applied Linguistics, linguist Braj Kachru has divided the varieties of World English into three concentric circles: inner, outer, and expanding. Although these labels are imprecise and in some ways misleading, many scholars would agree with [academic author and writer,] Paul Bruthiaux, [Ph.D.,] that they offer a useful shorthand for classifying contexts of English worldwide. Kachru also provides a simple graphic of the circle model of World Englishes in the slideshow,  World Englishes: Approaches, Issues, and Resources. Author Henry Hitchings notes in his book, The Language Wars, that the term world English is still in use, but is contested by critics who believe it strikes too strong a note of dominance. A Phase in the History of English World English has been defined as a phase in the history of the English language. This phase has witnessed the transformation of English from the mother tongue of a handful of nations to a language being used by far more speakers in non-mother tongue settings. The changes that have accompanied this spread—the multiplicity of varieties—result not from the faulty and imperfect learning of the non-mother tongue speakers, but from the nature of the process of microacquisition, language spread and change, says Janina Brutt-Griffler in her book World English. Standardized Patterns In the introduction to the book, English in the World: Global Rules, Global Roles, Rani Rubdy and Mario Saraceni point out: The global spread of English, its causes and consequences, have long been a focus of critical discussion. One of the main concerns has been that of standardization. This is also because, unlike other international languages such as Spanish and French, English lacks any official body setting and prescribing the norms of the language. This apparent linguistic anarchy has generated a tension between those who seek stability of the code through some form of convergence and the forces of linguistic diversity that are inevitably set in motion when new demands are made on a language that has assumed a global role of such immense proportions.One consequence of the global predominance that English has gained over the last few decades is that today non-native speakers of English far outnumber its native speakers (Graddol 1997, Crystal 2003). In the Oxford Guide to World English, Tom McArthur says, [A]lthough world English is varied, certain varieties and registers are fairly tightly controlled, often through standardized patterns of use.... Thus, there is a marked uniformity in the following areas: AirportsIn the public usage of international airports, where, on signboards, English is often twinned with other languages, and announcements are commonly in English or are multilingual including English. Newspapers and periodicalsEnglish-language broadsheet newspapers and magazine-style periodicals, in which the texts are tightly edited... Broadcast mediaThe programming of CNN, the BBC, and other especially TV news-and-views services, in which presentational formulas and formats are at least as crucial as in newspapers. Computer use, email, and the internet/webIn such computer and internet services as those offered by Microsoft.... Teaching World English From Liz Fords article in The Guardian, UK Must Embrace Modern English, Report Warns: The UK needs to abandon its outdated attitudes to English and embrace new forms of the language to maintain its influence in the global market, the left-wing think tank Demos said today.In a series of recommendations, the report, As you like it: Catching up in an age of global English, says that far from being corruptions of English, new versions of the language, such as Chinglish and Singlish (Chinese and Singaporean varieties of English) have values that we must learn to accommodate and relate to.It says the UK should focus English teaching on how the language is now used around the world, not according to arcane strictures of how it should be spoken and written....The reports authors, Samuel Jones and Peter Bradwell, say change is vital if the UK wants to maintain its influence around the world....We have retained ways of thinking about the English language that were more suited to empire than they are to a modern, globalised world, and we are at risk of becoming outdated, says th e report. Sources Bruthiaux, Paul. Squaring the Circles. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, vol. 13, no. 2, 2003, pp. 159-178. Brutt-Griffler, Janina. World English: A Study of Its Development. Multilingual Matters, 2002. Ford, Liz. UK Must Embrace Modern English, Report Warns. The Guardian [UK], 15 March, 2007. Hitchings, Henry. The Language Wars: A History of Proper English. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2011. Kachru, Braj B. â€Å"World Englishes: Approaches, Issues, and Resources,† p. 8, SlideShare. McArthur, Tom. The Oxford Guide to World English. Oxford University Press, 2002. Rubdy, Rani and Mario Saraceni. â€Å"Introduction.† English in the World: Global Rules, Global Roles, edited by Rani Rubdy and Mario Saraceni, Continuum, 2006.